On June 20, 2009, CFUL changed its format to contemporary hit radio and adopted its current callsign. The new brand name, AMP Radio, was inspired by KAMP-FM in Los Angeles, California, which adopted the same brand name in February 2009. The last song played on Fuel 90.3 was “Know Your Enemy” by Green Day, and the first song played by 90.3 AMP Radio was “Don’t Stop the Music” by Rihanna.

By September 2009, the station changed to the current CKMP-FM. CKMP was a former callsign of an unrelated radio station in Midland, Ontario which is known today as CICZ-FM.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article CKMP-FM, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Numerous remote straths were flooded by these schemes, many of the largest of which involved tunneling through mountains as well as damming rivers. Emma Wood, the author of a study of these pioneers wrote:

I heard about drowned farms and hamlets, the ruination of the salmon-fishing and how Inverness might be washed away if the dams failed inland. I was told about the huge veins of crystal they found when they were tunnelling deep under the mountains.

Current capacity is 1.33 GW and includes major developments such as the 120 MW Breadalbane scheme and the 245 MW Tummel system. It is estimated that little more than another 0.3 GW remains available to develop. There is further potential for new pump storage schemes that would work well with intermittent sources of power such as wind and wave. Examples include the 440 MW Cruachan Dam and 300 MW Falls of Foyers schemes. The 100 MW Glen Doe project, currently under construction and Scotland’s largest civil engineering project, is the first large scale scheme in Scotland for almost fifty years but is likely to be one of the last of its kind.

There is certainly further potential for small-scale run of the river local schemes such as the existing one in Knoydart and planned for Kingussie, but the total effect of such schemes, although important locally, will be tiny on a national basis. The production of hydro electricity has a long history in Scotland but given that the available catchment areas have practically all been exploited it is unlikely that there will be scope for the further development of significant amounts of new hydro generation.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Renewable energy in Scotland, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article Carland Cross, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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The farm started generating in 1998 and has since been expanded twice, initially with three 250 kW Nordex N26 wind turbines, then in 2003 with two 850 kW Vestas Turbines, to provide a total generating capacity of 2.5MW of electricity. On average, the wind farm supplies around 50% of the island’s energy demand (3MW).

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Huxley Hill Wind Farm, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Ex-director of ANEEL Afonso Henriques Moreira Santos stated that large dams such as Belo Monte were not necessary to meet the government’s goal of 6% growth per year. Rather, he argued that Brasil could grow through increasing its installed capacity in wind power, currently only at 400 MW.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Belo Monte Dam, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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* Doctor Octopus appears in two episodes, “The Power of Dr. Octopus” and “The Terrible Triumph of Dr. Octopus”, in the 1960s ”Spider-Man” animated series voiced by Vernon Chapman.

* Doctor Octopus appears in the ”Spider-Man” episode “Bubble, Bubble, Oil and Trouble” voiced by Stanley Jones. He stole crystals in order to enhance the power of his extra arms, and planned to use them to steal the oil from the ships at the harbor. He is stopped by Spider-Man.

* Doctor Octopus was later a guest villain in the 1982 ”The Incredible Hulk” episode “Tomb of the Unknown Hulk” voiced by Michael Bell. Doctor Octopus had stolen a rocket ship in the military camp.

* Michael Bell reprises his role of Doctor Octopus, who appeared in the ”Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends” episode “Spidey Meets the Girl of Tomorrow”. He plots to steal a time machine from two siblings from the future.

* Doctor Octopus made several appearances in the 1990s animated series ”Spider-Man: The Animated Series” voiced by Efrem Zimbalist, Jr. in a thick Germanic accent. In his first episode “Doctor Octopus Armed and Dangerous”, Otto Octavius was Peter Parker’s science teacher at Science Camp. This relationship of former mentor and pupil made Dr. Octopus fond of Peter even after his descent into villainy. Years later, he began experiments in order to generate ”Nuclear Fusion” inside a battery and was offered a position by the Hardy Foundation controlled by the mother of ”Felicia Harvey”. After his budget was cut, he was forced to move to an old house where he continued his experiments on fusion using four metal tentacles. When the experiment exploded, Octavius’ tentacles were permanently fused to his skeleton becoming Doctor Octopus. Of Spider-Man’s main rogue’s gallery, Doctor Octopus was a character that appeared quite frequently in the series. Aside from his vendettas against the Hardy Foundation, Octavius was also a member in both incarnations of the Kingpin’s Insidious Six. He later teamed up with the Kingpin to once again battle the Hardy family. On a solo venture, he created a sentient smaller robotic version of his tentacles called an Octobot. With it he battled Spider-Man, and after an injury caused the web-slinger to have temporary amnesia, he convinced Spider-Man they were partners in criminal endeavors. His last appearance was as one of the villains the Beyonder chose to represent evil in the Secret Wars saga. A Spider-Man of an alternate dimension, who had defeated Doc Ock and took possession of his trademark tentacles also appeared in “Spider Wars”.

* Doctor Octopus makes a cameo in the first episode of ”Spider-Man Unlimited”.

”The Spectacular Spider-Man”

* Doctor Octopus appears in ”The Spectacular Spider-Man” voiced by Peter MacNicol. Dr. Octavius is a research scientist working under Norman Osborn at OsCorp. He is very timid and willing to apologize for every little thing, a direct contrast to his boss, Norman. He is one of OsCorp’s most intelligent scientists and the creator of a four armed harness that makes him able to do dangerous experiments, playing a part in the creation of Sandman and Rhino, earning him the nickname “Doctor Octopus”, which he considers demeaning. Eventually, as the result of a devastating accident, orchestrated by the Green Goblin, Octavius’ harness becomes fused to his spinal cord. When found by Osborn and Spider-Man, the already paranoid doctor becomes deranged and megalomaniacal, blaming the two for his accident. He attacks both parties, and takes “Doctor Octopus” as his new name. With his arms permanently fused, he then seeks to destroy all of those who have wronged him, but Spider-Man eventually defeated the menace at a Coney Island carnival. In the following days, Doc Ock sent letters to Electro, who was going through therapy at Ravencroft. He convinced Electro to break him and the other members of the Sinister Six (Vulture, Sandman, Rhino, and Shocker) out of Ryker’s Island to fight Spider-Man. Doc Ock showed an interest in Spider-Man’s symbiote costume during the final battle at Central Park. Spider-Man’s symbiote costume started to take control of Spider-Man and if it weren’t for the intervention of Captain George Stacy, Doctor Octopus wouldn’t have survived the battle. At the beginning of the second season, he is moved to Ravencroft where he is being treated by Dr. Kafka along with Electro and Cletus Kasady, and is apparently cured. He was offered a chance in the new Sinister Six, but Electro mentioned he isn’t worth saving anymore, since he’s no longer interested in villainy. At the end of the episode ”Reinforcement”, his tentacles break him out of Ravencroft, apparently by force. It’s later revealed that he is the Master Planner, and has been in preparation for a gang war between the criminal organizations of his, The Big Man’s (Tombstone), and Silvermane’s. He is defeated by Spider-Man when a fight breaks out between the leaders. Octopus is not seen again for the remainder of the series, as the gang war has ended and the next few episodes focused on the Green Goblin’s return.

Film

”Spider-Man”

Director of the ”Spider-Man” films, Sam Raimi, has stated that Ock was intended to appear in the first film, teaming up with Green Goblin, but wasn’t included because Raimi thought it “wouldn’t do the movie justice to have a third origin in there.”

”Spider-Man 2”

For ”Spider-Man 2” (2004), Doctor Octopus is portrayed by Alfred Molina as the main antagonist. Unlike the comic version, the movie version is portrayed as a sympathetic character, married to a woman named Rosalie. He first meets Peter when Curt Connors recommends visiting him sometime. Otto converses with Peter about the experiment that will occur in a few days. He reveals he is experimenting with a substance called tritium that he will introduce to the world as a fusion-based energy source, looking similar to a miniature sun. He later begins his experiment with a handful of fellow scientists and reporters looking on, including Peter. Octavius attaches his A.I. tentacles to his waist and back, and the experiment begins. At first, it went very well, with Otto using his tentacles to contain loose fusion beams with his mechanical arms, but it immediately goes wrong and the amount of fusion beams multiply, killing Rosalie and destroying the inhibitor chip that Otto had used to prevent the advanced AI of the arms from adversely influencing his own mind. It also fused them to his spine. Once the experiment was thwarted by Spider-Man, he was rushed to the hospital.

His arms, now with a life of their own, kill the doctors while Otto is out cold. Soon, he wakes up and finds that his tentacles have minds of their own now. He blasts out the front door and heads towards a warehouse, which he uses as his base of operations. The tentacles convince Otto that in order to get funding for a new fusion reactor, he must begin a life of crime, becoming Doctor Octopus. Ock visits the first national bank of Manhattan and attacks the vault holding the precious gold coins, which were encased in bags. After knocking out three guards, he retrieved most of the bags from inside the vault. Spider-Man intervened, and they battled briefly. Ock managed to escape him and capture Aunt May to use her as a hostage. Spider-Man multitasks, keeping Aunt May safe on the top of a building while battling Doc Ock. Spider-Man wins the day, but Ock escapes capture. Octavius spends the money that he stole to get equipment for the more advanced version of his experiment. However, one thing is missing: the tritium. He travels to the home of Harry Osborn, who tells him that he will get the tritium once he brings Spider-Man to him.

The next day, while Peter is having coffee with Mary Jane, Doc Ock crashes in and kidnaps Mary Jane. Peter (who frequently lost his powers earlier, but gets them back at that moment) changes into Spider-Man and follows Doc Ock to a tower on the west side. Their battle starts on the tower’s top, where he breaks the big hand of the enormous clock in order to make Spider-Man fall. Ock and Spider-Man soon fall off the tower and land on the roof of a passing subway train. Their battle quickly resumes on the train’s roof, much to the horror of the passengers inside. After battling for several minutes, it becomes clear that the two are too evenly matched as neither combatant is able to gain a significant advantage and Ock intentionally destroys the train’s brakes, forcing Spider-Man to stop the train from running off the end of its track. Ock easily captures the now exhausted Spider-Man after he saves the speeding train. Giving Spider-Man’s unconscious body to Harry, he retrieves the (much bigger) tritium and heads back towards the warehouse. Holding Mary Jane up in metal chains, he begins his new experiment. However, Spider-Man arrives in the nick of time, combating Octavius once again, and almost gets close to killing Spidey when he accidentally stabs some electric cables attached to the machine. Peter then reveals himself to Octavius, who had been reformed by the blast. The machine once again goes haywire, and Otto decides to drown the machine in the river, bidding Peter farewell. He destroys the reactor’s support beams, and it sinks into the bottom of the river, taking Octavius with it.

”Spider-Man 3”

Archive footage of Molina as Dr. Octopus appears in the opening scene of ”Spider-Man 3”, and an old newspaper headline in J. Jonah Jameson’s office states that Octopus is still at large.

Video games

Doctor Octopus appears in many Spider-Man computer games and video games, some of which feature him as the game’s primary antagonist:

* Doctor Octopus appears in the Spider-Man ”Questprobe” game.

* Doctor Octopus was one of many Spider-Man villains to appear in the arcade game ”Spider-Man: The Video Game”.

* Doc Ock is one of the bosses in ”The Amazing Spider-Man” for the Game Boy.

* Doctor Octopus is the final boss in ”Spider-Man: Return of the Sinister Six”.

* Dr. Octopus is the first boss in the game ”The Amazing Spider-Man vs. The Kingpin”.

* Doctor Octopus the first boss in both the Super Nintendo and Sega Genesis games based on the animated series.

* Doctor Octopus appears as a boss in the Japanese only Super Famicon game ”Spider-Man: Lethal Foes”.

* Efrem Zimbalist, Jr. reprises his role of Doctor Octopus in the ”Spider-Man” video game for the PlayStation, Dreamcast, PC, Nintendo 64, and Game Boy Color. Doctor Octopus works with Carnage to turn everyone in New York into symbiotes but they are both defeated by Spider-Man. After being defeated, the Carnage symbiote bonds with Ock, turning him into Monster Ock (voiced by Marcus Shirock). After the Monster Ock is defeated causing the Carnage symbiote to retreat, Doctor Octopus is arrested and is seen banging his head on the cell bars

* Doctor Octopus appeared as the final boss in the Game Boy Color game ”Spider-Man 2: The Sinister Six”.

* In ”Spider-Man 2: Enter Electro”, Doctor Octopus was seen at the end still banging his head on the cell bars when the villains in Electro’s cell ask Doctor Octopus’ cellmates if they know how to play Go Fish.

* Doctor Octopus appeared in the ”Spider-Man 2” game based on the movie ”Spider-Man 2” voiced by Alfred Molina. He was the final boss in the game, in addition to being in other boss fights. He also is seen in the boss arena along with Rhino, Shocker, and Calypso, respectively, replacing Mysterio. In the PC/Mac version of the ”Spider-Man 2” game, the prologue cutscene takes most of the cutscene from the main console version where Dr. Octavius’ machine goes haywire and Spider-Man swings in to stop it. Taking from that, Doc Ock is responsible for nearly all of the game’s events. It is possible that he was responsible for having several crooks cause a major riot at the New York Maximum Security Prison and free the supervillain known as the Rhino, which was successful, though the Rhino failed to kill Spider-Man when he escaped. After the Rhino was defeated when he accidentally blew up a gas station and was sent several blocks away from the explosion, knocked unconscious, we see Ock’s arms spiriting Rhino away. In the next level, Doc Ock pulls a heist on the bank, like he did in the movie and the main console version, and after Spider-Man defeats several of Ock’s crooks and saves several security guards and civilians, he confronts Ock in the bank’s basement. There, Ock is stealing much gold and money in a vault and after Spider-Man solves a puzzle that opens the large triple door that is separating them, they battle. Ock escapes, and Spider-Man is forced to let him go to save his Aunt May from three crooks whom have decided to kidnap her and place her in their van. Later, after Spider-Man defeats the supervillain Puma at a construction site, Puma reveals to Spider-Man he was merely a distraction for Spider-Man while Ock kidnapped his girlfriend, Mary Jane Watson, which Ock did. Later, Ock was responsible for the hold-up at OsCorp with his thugs, the Rhino, and the eight bombs Ock planted in the building. Spider-Man took care of all those, but Ock counted on Mysterio to distract the vigilante with an illusion of New York literally torn up out of the ground. Mysterio failed, and Spider-Man lived. Later, Spider-Man fought through several of Ock’s cronies at the subway station, and confronted him on top of a moving train where Ock constantly threw things at Spider-Man and dismantled the carts of the train. That is until it crashed, and both superhumans survived. Spider-Man tracked Doc Ock down in his compound, fighting through more thugs, destroying gun turrets Ock placed around and inside the compound, until Spider-Man finally found Mary Jane and Ock activated his machine. There, Ock confronted Spider-Man on a platform on top of a machine, throwing explosive barrels at Spider-Man, and the vigilante defeated him by shooting at four generators that caused explosions that temporarily stunned Ock and let Spider-Man pummel him several times. Once Spider-Man finally defeats Ock, he realizes the error of his ways like he did in the movie, and sacrifices himself by pulling his machine down into the river as Spider-Man saves Mary Jane.

* Doctor Octopus is a playable character and a boss in the ”Spider-Man: Friend or Foe” video game voiced by Joe Alaskey. He alongside Green Goblin, Sandman, and Venom are shown in the opening cutscene fighting Spider-Man and New Goblin until they are attacked by P.H.A.N.T.O.M.s and the villains end up abducted. Spider-Man encounters him in a secret lab within a Japanese industrial factory building another solar generator apparently to power the P.H.A.N.T.O.M.s. Spider-Man defeats Doctor Octopus and frees him from the Control Amulet. After being freed, Doctor Octopus joins Spider-Man on his quest because like the vast amount of other villains in the game he is after revenge for being put under mind control. After agreeing to aid Spider-Man, he says, “If I didn’t know any better, I’d swear I’ve been punched,” to which Spider-Man (who had punched him various times during their battle) answers: “Huh. Weird.”

* A female, 2099 version of Doctor Octopus will appear as a boss in the video game ”Spider-Man: Shattered Dimensions”. She fights Spider-Man 2099.

Miscellaneous

* Doctor Octopus appears in the ”Robot Chicken” episode “Tapping a Hero” voiced by Seth Green.

Toys and collectibles

* Doc Ock has been recreated in action figure form multiple times, first as part of Mattel’s Secret Wars line, then later many times by Toy Biz in their Spider-Man and Marvel Legends series, and finally by Hasbro as part of their Spider-Man: Origin series. The movie figure will also be featured in Hasbro’s Marvel Legends Spider-Man 3 wave. The action feature from this figure was removed. Hasbro released a Spectacular Spider-Man action figure later.

* The character has also been recreated in several statues and mini-busts, by the likes of Diamond Select, Art Asylum, and Bowen Designs.

* Doctor Octopus is the third figurine in the Classic Marvel Figurine Collection.

Attractions

* Doctor Octopus appears as the leader of the Sinister Syndicate in ”The Amazing Adventures of Spider-Man” ride at Universal Orlando Resort voiced by Pat Fraley. He has invented an anti-gravity cannon, and uses it, with the Syndicate, to hold the Statue of Liberty for ransom. He attacks guests several times during the ride, before he is finally defeated by Spider-Man on the New York rooftops and is last seen bundled together with the rest of the Syndicate, attempting to attack Spider-Man one last time before his tentacle is webbed to the Hobgoblin’s head.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Doctor Octopus, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Keegan et al. (2001) described the relationships among workers and authorities evaluating long-established, though often expensive and slow, methodologies with more recent technological developments as sometimes discordant. Gray et al. (1999b) lamented that there is a strong institutional tendency for sediment ecologists to rely on sampling methods developed in the early 1900s! A fine balance needs to be struck. Some degree of paradigm inertia is necessary to maintain intellectual continuity, but it can be taken too far. Physics, as a science, confronted this issue long ago and has widely embraced new technologies after establishing a scientific culture of always linking new techniques to established findings in a period of calibration and evaluation. The pace of this process in biology, as a whole, has quickened over the past few decades and ecology has only recently come to this horizon. This article introduces one such technology, sediment profile imagery (SPI) that is slowly gaining acceptance and currently undergoing its evaluation and calibration period even though it has existed since the 1970s. Like many of the technologies mentioned above, each new capability requires a careful consideration of its appropriateness in any particular application. This is especially true when they cross important, though often subtle, boundaries of data collection limitations. For example, much of our benthic knowledge has been developed from point-sample methods like cores or grabs, whereas continuous data collection, like some video transect analysis methods (e.g. Tkachenko 2005), may require different spatial interpretations that more explicitly integrate patchiness. While remote sampling techniques often improve our point-sampling resolution, benthologists need to consider the real-world heterogeneity at small spatial scales and compare them to the noise inherent to most high-volume data collection methods (e.g. Rabouille et al. 2003 for microelectrode investigations of pore water). New developments in the field of SPI will provide tools for investigating dynamic sediment processes, but also challenge our ability to accurately interpolate point-data collected at spatial densities approaching continuous data sets.

SP imagery as embodied in the commercial REMOTS system (Rhoads et al. 1997) is expensive (>NZ$60,000 at time of writing), requires heavy lifting gear (ca. 66-400 kg with a full complement of weights to effectively penetrate sediments), and is limited to muddy sediments. REMOTS is not well suited to small research programmes, nor operation in shallow water from small vessels, which is, quite possibly, an area where it could be most useful. Studying shallow sub-tidal environments can be a challenging exercise, especially among shifting sands. Macrofaunal sampling usually occurs at the sub-metre scale, whilst the dominant physical factors such as wave exposure and sediment texture can change at a scale of only metres, even though they are often only resolved to a scale of hundreds of metres. In such a dynamic environment, monitoring potentially transient disturbances like a spoil mound requires benthic mapping at fine spatial and temporal scales, an application ideally suited to SPI.

Design concept

The defining characteristic of antecedent SPI devices is the prism containing the transparent face, mirror, and distilled water, whether the device descends into sediments like a periscope or is towed through the seabed like a plough (Cutter and Diaz 1998). Pushing anything into sediment requires displacing sand grains and replacing them with the imaging device without disturbing the neighbouring sediment layers that need to be imaged. Using a wedge to displace the sediments requires considerable structural integrity and force, which increases the size, weight, and cost of building and deploying it. A smaller wedge would, of course, reduce those requirements, but at the unacceptable cost of an extremely small sampling area (typical SPI devices image about 300 cm2). The mirror further restricts the shape of the wedge. Unless radical and expensive optics are used to alter the light path geometry, a 45° angle must be maintained between the sediment face and the plane of the camera. These restrictions dictate an SPI prism as an inclined plane (that is a triangular prism containing one right angle). Pushing the SPI prism into sediments is doing physical work, defined by the classic equation:

W = Fd

where W = work, F = force, and d=distance. Displacing any sediment grain requires a certain amount of work to overcome both inertia and the friction generated by all adjacent grains (both static and dynamic). The wedge does displacement work by using less force at the cost of increasing the distance the grain must travel. In order to reduce the size of an SPI device it makes sense to reduce the amount of work required to displace sediment for a given imaging area. Being in an aquatic environment gives the first advantage to reducing work. By increasing the water content of sediments, both static and dynamic coefficients of friction from grain-on-grain interactions are greatly reduced. At these large physical scales, viscosity interactions are very small compared to friction. Therefore, fluidising sediments would allow an SPI device to displace more and coarser sediments with less downward force. (Of course all mass-energy is conserved – more work is required to pump the water into sediments – but at least that can be done away from the wedge.) It is important to cleanly separate sediments to be fluidised and removed from the sedimentary fabric that must be imaged intact.

Water lubrication can be used to reduce the amount of force required and lessen required workload, but can we also reduce the distance grains need to be displaced? The imaging mirror is the greatest constraint to reducing grain displacement so it makes sense to dispense with it. A number of commercial and consumer line scanners exist which digitise an image by moving in a plane recording the colour and intensity of light encountered. Flatbed scanners and digital photocopiers are examples of this technique. Light shining from the device reflects off the scene to be imaged to a sensor located near the light source. The light’s path can be folded and manipulated by a series of intermediary mirrors and lenses to a small linear sensor array or directly to a large array of tiny sensors. Pushing a thin flatbed scanner into sediments requires much less work than pushing a large prism, as concluded by Keegan et al. (2001):

“In terms of its current design, the size of the prism in the SPI array impedes penetration in all but the softer, less compact sediments. When, for the sake of enhanced penetration, it becomes necessary to use the full complement of lead weights (66kg), the system becomes difficult to handle on smaller craft with restricted lifting equipment. Size and, correspondingly, weight could be reduced if the prism could be replaced to act more as a slim ‘digging blade,’ the whole exposed face of which could be digitally scanned in situ. Such a blade would not only facilitate easier and deeper penetration but also extend the use of SPI to more compact, fine to medium sands. The authors have already experimented with a suitable casing that penetrated these more resistant deposits to depths exceeding 55cm, however, a physically robust scanner that will tolerate the shock of impact and have a level of resolution adequate to the purpose remains to be identified.”

The engineering problems of resolution, weight, and pressure and shock-resistance are compounded by keeping the scanner in a rectangular configuration (Patterson et al. 2006). Most underwater equipment is housed in cylinders because cylinders present a smaller surface area for enclosing a given volume than a rectangular enclosure. For a given surface (imaging) area, fewer sediment grains will need to be displaced a shorter distance when imaged from the perimeter of a cylinder than the oblique face of a wedge. It is a conceptually simple matter to modify a consumer flatbed scanner so that its scan head (containing light source and sensor array) moves in a circular path instead of a plane as illustrated in Figure 7. This configuration change allows for a more efficient wedge geometry or, as we’ll see later, permits its elimination.

Figure 7. Changing the scan head path from the typical plane found in consumer scanners to a circular path allows imaging of the same area with a much smaller perpendicular plan area (which is the face that must penetrate sediments). This configuration also allows use of the mechanically superior (under external pressure) cylinder rather than a box.

First prototype

The goal was to obtain the greatest imaging area in the smallest cylindrical volume using a consumer flatbed scanner. Typical flatbed scanners image an area of about 220 x 300 mm (660 cm2), so a system had to be found which could be reconfigured to fit inside a sealed transparent capsule. There are two basic imaging methods in modern flatbed scanners. From the 1980s to the late-1990s the market was dominated by systems that could capture an image from any depth of field. Most such digital imaging devices used a Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) array. In a CCD, discrete dots of photosensitive material produce a specific charge based on the intensity of light hitting it. A CCD does not detect colour. In this technology, a scene is illuminated, a narrow band of reflected light from the scene passes through a slit (to eliminate light coming from other directions), is then concentrated by an array of mirrors (typically folded into a box) into a prism typically a few centimetres in length. The prism splits the light into its constituent colours. Small CCD arrays are carefully placed at the point where the primary colours are sharply focused. The separate colour intensities are combined to composite values and recorded by the computer (or scanner electronic assemblies) as a line of pixels. The moving scan head then advances a short distance to gather the next line of the scene. Thus resolution in one axis is determined by CCD array size and focused optics, while the other axis’ resolution is determined by the smallest reliable step the scan head advancing motor can make. The optical assemblies of this type of scanner are fairly robust to vibration, but the traditional light source (a cold cathode tube of balanced colour temperature) is not. It was therefore replaced with an array of solid-state white light emitting diodes (LEDs). Another advantage of this replacement is that the sources could be alternated between white light and ultraviolet (UV) of about 370 nm wavelength. This UV light source allowed detection of visibly fluorescing materials (typically tracer minerals or hydrocarbons) by the prototype.

A suitable scan head model that could be reconfigured to fit within an 80 mm diameter cylinder was located, and the scanner’s standard stepper motor was modified to fit within the same space. The entire unit was then mounted on a stainless steel pivot and rotated by a spring-loaded friction wheel pressing against the inner wall of the cylinder. Since the perimeter of the cylinder (250 mm) was smaller than the typical scan path (300 mm) the motor gearing was reduced to improve along-path scan resolution, the resulting change in image geometry was relatively easy to correct in the image capture software. The resulting assembly is shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8. This is the scanning module of the first SPI-Scan sediment profile imager. A) stepper-motor, gearing, and friction wheel assembly, B) scan head with modified electronics mounted on the non-imaging surfaces. NOTE: This photo was taken using a wide-angle lens, producing distortion.

The tight fit of the electronics required fairly close internal tolerances and the transparent cylinder needed to fit within an external armour cylinder with closer tolerances. The latter was necessary to avoid gaps between the sediment face to be imaged and the imaging plane. Gaps allow sediments to fall or smear and degrade the scientific value of the sediment profile. Stainless steel automobile exhaust tubing swaged by a hydraulic ram using a custom turned stainless steel (316) cone was ultimately used. Portals were cut into the centre section to allow imaging of a 210 x 150 mm area divided among four windows.

In order to inject water into sediments so as to displace some but not disturb others a penetrating head was cast and plumbed. A number of penetrating head geometries were explored using a series of ¼ scale models attached to a penetrometer and forced into sandy sediments under water. A sharply angled plane with an offset conic section removed was chosen as the most efficient. With this configuration, the head first separated (by force) the sediments to be displaced while supporting the sediments of the bore wall. A vortex of water was created by angled water jets in the conic space. This design massively disturbed sediments in one ‘exhaust’ sector of the SPI image, but minimised disturbance in the remainder. The penetrator head was made by first carving 1.5 kg of butter into the desired shape, then casting a negative in plaster-of-Paris, water jets (copper tubing) were mounted within the mold, the assembly was dried in an oven at 70°C for three days, and then positively cast using about 7 kg of molten lead. The final penetrator head is shown in Figure 10. Prior to deployment the device required a tether providing electrical and mechanical connections to the surface vessel and a frame to ensure that it entered the seabed perpendicularly.

Figure 10. A) displacement-aspect of penetrator head showing water jet placement, B) side-view, C) diagram of jet-induced water flow pattern to fluidise sediments and encourage them to move up and out of the bore hole, D) Top view (perpendicular to viewing plane) showing area of disturbed (1) and undisturbed sediments, E) final casting for prototype.

The first prototype was constructed as a proof-of-concept exercise. The glass cylinder was unlikely to survive repeated use in the field. The device was subjected to a simulated SPI application: spoil mound cap monitoring. A 450 l drum was filled with fine sand from a local beach. Glutinous silt and clay-sized material was then laid down in discrete layers with the sand. A coarse-sand ‘cap’ was then laid on top and the whole drum filled with seawater. Penetration was satisfactory (13 cm of image, another 15 cm for the penetrator head), but resolution was poor as expected.

Second prototype

Experience building and testing the first prototype identified a number of key issues. The scanner technology chosen provided great depth of field (useful for identifying surface features), but required a large volume for the mirror assembly (which had to be strengthened to withstand vibrations). Furthermore, the armour, support flanges, and water pipes limited further sediment penetration and caused sediment disturbance. It was desirable to move the entire water gallery into the centre of the scanner module so that penetrator heads could be rapidly changed in the field. It was likely that different shapes would be more effective in different sediment textures and fabrics.

These decisions led to an alternate scanner technology that had been developed and marketed mostly in the early 2000s. It is known by various names such as contact imaging, direct imaging, or LED indirect exposure (US Patent 5499112). In this technology, a string of LEDs strobe the primary colours onto an imaging plane. Illumination is crucial so the imaging plane must be close. Reflected light from the imaging plane is directed into an array of light guides which lead to CCD elements. The physical arrangement between the light guides and the imaging plane is what limits the depth of field using this technology. Tests using consumer scanners indicated that the imaging plane could be 1-3 mm away from the scan head for full resolution images, but dropped off quickly beyond that. Scene features 5 mm or more away from the scan head were almost unidentifiable. Since the primary value of SP imagery is two-dimensional, this limitation was a small trade off for the great savings in space. The solid-state technology is robust to vibration and no mirrors are necessary. Unfortunately, UV illumination was difficult to provide without a custom-designed scan head and was therefore not included in the second prototype.

One major advantage of SPI is that it reliably provides sediment information regardless of water clarity. However, many SPI applications such as habitat mapping and side-scan sonar ground-truthing, would benefit from imagery of the seabed’s surface when visibility permits. Since the tether provided a source of power and computer connectivity with the surface vessel, adding a digital camera to image the seabed surface immediately adjacent to the sediment profile was another conceptually simple addition. A laser array surrounding the camera provided a means to correct the geometry of the seabed surface image (since it is captured at a variable angle) and its scale. Such imagery provides a larger reference frame in which to interpret the adjacent sediment profile and permits a more informed estimation of the habitat connectivity of multiple profiles. A longitudinal section of the second prototype with the seabed surface camera is presented in Figure 11. The typical deployment configuration is shown in Figure 12.

Figure 11. A longitudinal section through the second prototype SPI-Scan imager produced by [http://www.benthicscience.com/bshome.htm Benthic Science Limited]. A) electronics space, B) motor/gearing assembly connected to vertical drive shaft, C) one of five lasers, D) seabed surface CCD, E) camera pod, F) scan head, G) field-changeable penetrator with water galleries and jets, H) field-changeable cutting blade, I) scan head holder, J) central pressurised water gallery, K) transparent polycarbonate cylinder, L) water pump.

Figure 12. Diagram of second prototype (one leg of frame removed for clarity) as envisioned ”in situ” with scale/geometry lasers active emanating from surface camera pod.

Field trial results

Several decisions during the design phase affected the ultimate utility of this device. The REMOTS system is well suited to providing point SP imagery in deep water from large vessels. SPI-Scan prototypes were specifically intended for shallow water work from small vessels. Although the design can be modified to work deeper, a 50 m tether was used to allow effective operations in 30 m of water. Field tests were first conducted in 29 m water depths from the R/V Munida of the University of Otago Department of Marine Science.

Figure 13. The second prototype in field trials. Seen here deploying from the 6 m ”R/V Nauplius” (upper left), on the seabed though locked in the up position (upper right and lower left – lasers not visible here), and starting to dig into the sand (lower right).

The next set of sea trials were conducted near an aquaculture facility from a 5 m research vessel. Seventy-eight images from about 20 deployments were collected. Figure 14 presents two representative images. The digital images carry much more detail than reproduced here as Figure 15 demonstrates.

Figure 14. Here are two portions of sediment profiles taken 1 km from an aquaculture facility along the tidal current (left) and across (right). The right hand scale divisions are 1 mm apart.

Figure 15. Portions of images in figure 14 are shown in panels 6, 7, and 8. Sediment texture is detailed in panel 6, a polychaete worm is evident in panel 7, and panel 8 shows ”Echinocardium” (heart urchin) shell fragments in silt matrix. Panel 9 shows a diver giving the ‘thumbs up’ sign to the scanner to illustrate the limited depth of field of the second prototype. Poor water visibility is also in evidence by the heavy background lighting. All scale divisions are in millimetres.

The surface computer stamped the date and time of collection directly onto the SP image. Custom software integrated an NMEA data stream from a GPS connected to the computer’s serial port to also stamp the geographic position of the surface vessel (or of the device if corrected by NMEA output from an acoustic positioning beacon array). The software further uses a modification of the GEOTiff graphic standard to embed geographic position and datum information into the image tags. This permits automatic placement of SPI and seabed surface images into spatially appropriate positions when opening within a GIS package. This functionality allows real time assessment of benthic data in the field to inform further sampling decisions.

Future directions

Field trials have proven that the device produces usable images (image analysis is a separate topic covered in the broader literature). The technology is substantially more cost-effective than other existing SPI devices and able to be deployed from small vessels (ca. 5 m) by two persons operating a light frame or davit. Development of the device continues with better penetration geometries and technologies, more hydrodynamic housings, and extra sensor options. Koenig et al. (2001) reviewed some exciting developments in optical sensors (also known as optodes or reactive foils) capable of resolving sub-centimetre oxygen distribution (using the non-consumptive ruthenium fluorescence method) and pH. Very small redox (Eh) probes have also been available for quite some time. Vopel et al. (2003) demonstrated the utility of combining such instruments in studying animal-sediment interactions. These instruments can be integrated into the sediment imager relatively easily and would allow absolute quantification of sediment geochemical profiles at a small number of sites to inform the analysis of the surrounding SP images. Adding UV illumination is only a manufacturing issue. UV capabilities could extend the role of SPI in direct pollution monitoring of harbours or assessing the effects of petrochemical spills. SP image resolution is high enough to permit sediment tracer studies without expensive dyeing if the tracer mineral presents unique colour or fluorescence characteristics.

Keegan et al. (2001) pointed out that chemical and physical environmental measurements alone are easily quantified and readily reproducible, but are overall poor monitors of environmental health. Biological and ecological theory is well enough advanced to be a full partner in environmental legislation, monitoring, and enforcement (Karr 1991) and can provide the appropriate local context for interpretation of physico-chemical results. In a typical assessment of mariculture impacts on the benthos Weston (1990) found that sediment chemistry (CHN, water-soluble sulfides, and redox measures) measures of organic enrichment effects extended only 45 m from the farm, but benthic community effects were apparent to 150 m. SPI can elucidate many of these important biological parameters. Benthic Science Limited continues development of SPI-Scan technology.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Sediment Profile Imagery, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article Wonderla, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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A turborocket is a type of aircraft engine combining elements of a jet engine and a rocket. It typically comprises a multi-stage fan driven by a turbine, which is driven by the hot gases exhausting from a series of small rocket-like motors mounted around the turbine inlet. The turbine exhaust gases mix with the fan discharge air, and combust with the air from the compressor before exhausting through a convergent-divergent propelling nozzle.

Background

Once a jet engine goes high enough in an atmosphere, there is insufficient oxygen to burn the jet fuel. The idea behind a turborocket is to supplement the atmospheric oxygen with an onboard supply. This allows operation at a much higher altitude than a normal engine would allow.

The turborocket design offers a mixture of benefits with drawbacks. It is not a true rocket, so it cannot operate in space. Cooling the engine might be troublesome since many turbojet engines require significant cooling air to prevent overheating (melting) crucial parts.

Air turboramjet

The air turboramjet engine is a combined cycle engine that merges aspects of turbojet and ramjet engines. Air passes through an inlet and is then compressed by an axial compressor. That compressor is driven by a turbine, which is powered by hot, high pressure gas from a combustion chamber. These initial aspects are very similar to how a turbojet operates, however, there are several differences. The first is that the combustor in the turboramjet is often separate from the main airflow. Instead of combining air from the compressor with fuel to combust, the turboramjet combustor may use hydrogen and oxygen, carried on the aircraft, as its fuel for the combustor.

The air compressed by the compressor bypasses the combustor and turbine section of the engine, where it is mixed with the turbine exhaust. The turbine exhaust can be designed to be fuel-rich (i.e., the combustor does not burn all the fuel) which, when mixed with the compressed air, creates a hot fuel-air mixture which is ready to burn again. More fuel is injected into this air where it is again combusted. The exhaust is ejected through a propelling nozzle, generating thrust.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Air turborocket, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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A new variable displacement technology called Multi-Displacement System (MDS) is used in some versions which can shut off two cylinders on each bank under light load to improve fuel economy. For the 2009 model year power has been bumped up to as much as and depending on application. It also gets 4% better fuel economy. Variable valve timing (VVT) was also introduced.

5.7

The ’5.7 L Hemi’ was released for model year 2003 on the Dodge Ram 2500 and 3500 pickup trucks to replace the Magnum 5.9 engine. It also replaced the 8.0L V-10 engine in the heavy duty Ram. As of 2004 it was the only available gasoline engine in the Ram Heavy Duty. Chrysler has since made the 5.7& L Hemi available in all models of the 2004 Dodge Ram, Dodge Durango, the 2005 Chrysler 300C, Dodge Magnum R/T, Jeep Grand Cherokee and the 2006 Dodge Charger R/T. Dodge has also announced that the 5.7L Hemi will be available on the 2009 Dodge Challenger R/T; the 6 speed version will not feature MDS.

The Hemi in the Ram delivered and , but and for the 300C and Magnum R/T, which is exactly more than the old 5.9 engine. It is a 90-degree V8, 2-valve pushrod design like the past LA engines, displacing , with a bore of and a stroke of .

The 5.7& L Hemi is made at Chrysler’s Saltillo Engine plant in Ramos Arizpe, Mexico.

The Hemi was on the Ward’s 10 Best Engines list for 2003 through 2007, and again in 2009.

This engine is used in the following vehicles:

* 2003–present Dodge Ram

* 2004–2009 Dodge Durango

* 2005–present Chrysler 300 ”300C”

* 2005–2008 Dodge Magnum ”R/T”

* 2006–present Dodge Charger ”R/T”

* 2005–present Jeep Grand Cherokee

* 2006–present Jeep Commander

* 2007–2009 Chrysler Aspen

* 2009–present Dodge Challenger ”R/T”

2009 Revisions

Chrysler has made various revisions to the 5.7& L for the 2009 model year. The first for all applications is what Chrysler calls Variable Camshaft Timing or VCT. VCT (Essentially Variable Valve Timing) uses an oil control valve which controls oil flow to a unique camshaft sprocket which contains a phasing device, which depending on the operation of the oil control valve either advances or retards camshaft timing.

Cylinder heads have been revised to increase flow. Though the intake manifold has also been changed on all applications, it is however model specific. Dodge Ram, non-Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) Chrysler Aspens, and non-HEV Dodge Durango utilize an active intake manifold with a short runner valve to optimize torque and horsepower. At lower engine RPM the valve is closed, resulting in improved low-end torque from the longer runners. At higher engine RPM the valve is opened, diverting the incoming air into the center of the manifold. The shorter runners results in improved horsepower. Passenger cars, Jeep vehicles, and HEV Chrysler Aspen & HEV Dodge Durango do not use this manifold, these vehicles utilize a passive intake manifold, which does not have a short runner valve.

Six-speed manual transmission and all Heavy Duty truck applications will differ by not having the Multiple Displacement System (MDS). The new version of the 5.7L has five different camshaft profiles. All will have VCT.

* Active intake with MDS

* Active intake without MDS

* Passive intake with MDS

* Passive intake without MDS

* HEV Application (modified version of passive intake with MDS)

2009 to present Power Numbers

* 300C: ,

* Charger R/T: ,

* Challenger R/T 5 Speed Automatic: ,

* Challenger R/T 6 Speed Manual: ,

* Ram 1500 Truck: ,

* Ram 2500/3500 Truck: ,

* Jeep Grand Cherokee and Jeep Commander: ,

* Chrysler Aspen and Dodge Durango non-HEV: ,

* Chrylser Aspen and Dodge Durango HEV: ,

6.1

The Hemi is also available in a version. The engine’s bore is , and many other changes were made to allow it to produce at 6200& rpm and at 4800& rpm. The engine block is different from the 5.7, with revised coolant channels and oil jets to cool the pistons. A forged crankshaft, lighter pistons, and strengthened connecting rods add durability. A cast aluminum intake manifold is tuned for high-RPM power and does not include variable-length technology. Chrysler’s Multi-Displacement System is not used on the 6.1.

Applications:

* 2005–present Chrysler 300C ”SRT–8”

* 2005–2008 Dodge Magnum ”SRT-8”

* 2006–present Dodge Charger ”SRT-8”

* 2006–present Jeep Grand Cherokee ”SRT-8” (420& hp/310& kW)

* 2008–present Dodge Challenger ”SRT-8”

6.4

Chrysler displayed a larger Hemi in 2005 with output and torque. It is based on an iron HEMI 6.1& L engine block with aluminium alloy pistons. In late 2009 Chrysler Group LLC announced that the 6.4 Hemi would be available in the next generation SRT 8 Dodge Charger, Chrysler 300c and Jeep Grand Cherokee.

The production version of the 6.4L Hemi will first debut in the 2011 Dodge Challenger SRT8 and it will utilize Variable Camshaft Timing as well as MDS in automatic equipped cars and non-MDS in 6-speed manual cars.

The engine will then be used in the Dodge Charger SRT8, Chrysler 300SRT8 and the Jeep Grand Cherokee SRT8. At this time engine output is not yet known.

A crate engine version was sold under the name ’392 Hemi Crate Engine’.

Marketing

In February to April 2005, DaimlerChrysler hosted a ‘What Can You HEMI?’ contest promoting alternative uses of the HEMI engines. The top 5 finalist include HEMI Snowblower (designed by Tim Flucht of Belleville, Michigan), HEMI-Go-Round (by Jonathan Brzon of Topeka, Kansas) carousel, HEMI on Ice ice resurfacer (designed by MSX International), HEMI-Shredder (designed by Randy Fredner of Earlysville, VA), HEMI Big Wheel, i.e. the child’s tricycle of the 70′s (designed by Marcus Brauns of Vancouver, British Columbia). The winner was HEMI Big Wheel, which had a 5.7L HEMI in the back, which was installed backwards, thus reverse became the only forward gear. Plate steel was the predominant material used to make this remarkable machine. A rolled tube of steel had to be utilized for the front tire as there were no such tires 4′ in diameter that were as narrow as needed for this project.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Chrysler Hemi engine, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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